CHARACTERISTICS OF DC GENERATORS

CHARACTERISTICS OF DC GENERATOR

The following are the three most important characteristics of a d.c. generator:

1. Open Circuit Characteristic (O.C.C.)

This curve shows the relation between the generated e.m.f. at no-load (E0) and the field current (If) at constant speed. It is also known as magnetic characteristic or no-load saturation curve. Its shape is practically the same for all generators whether separately or self-excited. The data for O.C.C. curve are obtained experimentally by operating the generator at no load and constant speed and recording the change in terminal voltage as the field current is varied.

2. Internal or Total characteristic (E/Ia)

This curve shows the relation between the generated e.m.f. on load (E) and the armature current (Ia). The e.m.f. E is less than E0 due to the demagnetizing effect of armature reaction. Therefore, this curve will lie below the open circuit characteristic (O.C.C.). The internal characteristic is of interest chiefly to the designer. It cannot be obtained directly by experiment. It is because a voltmeter cannot read the e.m.f. generated on load due to the voltage drop in armature resistance. The internal characteristic can be obtained from external characteristic if winding resistances are known because armature reaction effect is included in both characteristics

3. External characteristic (V/IL)

This curve shows the relation between the terminal voltage (V) and load current (IL). The terminal voltage V will be less than E due to voltage drop in the armature circuit. Therefore, this curve will lie below the internal characteristic. This characteristic is very important in determining the suitability of a generator for a given purpose. It can be obtained by making simultaneous measurements of terminal voltage and load current (with voltmeter and ammeter) of a loaded generator.

External characteristic

Fig. (3.14) shows the external characteristics of a cumulatively compounded
generator. The series excitation aids the shunt excitation. The degree of compounding depends upon the increase in series excitation with the increase in load current.

(i) If series winding turns are so adjusted that with the increase in load current the terminal voltage increases, it is called over-compounded generator. In such a case, as the load current increases, the series field m.m.f. increases and tends to increase the flux and hence the generated voltage. The increase in generated voltage is greater than the I_aR_a drop so that instead of decreasing, the terminal voltage increases as shown by curve A in Fig. (3.14).

(ii) If series winding turns are so adjusted that with the increase in load
current, the terminal voltage substantially remains constant, it is called flat-compounded generator. The series winding of such a machine has lesser number of turns than the one in over-compounded machine and, therefore, does not increase the flux as much for a given load current. Consequently, the full-load voltage is nearly equal to the no-load voltage
as indicated by curve B in Fig (3.14).

(iii) If series field winding has lesser number of turns than for a flat compounded machine, the terminal voltage falls with increase in load
current as indicated by curve C m Fig. (3.14). Such a machine is called under-compounded generator.

Voltage Regulation

The change in terminal voltage of a generator between full and no load (at constant speed) is called the voltage regulation, usually expressed as a percentage of the voltage at full-load.

% Voltage regulation= [ (V_NL-V_FL)/V_FL ] × 100

where V_NL = Terminal voltage of generator at no load

V_{FL =} Terminal voltage of generator at full load
Note that voltage regulation of a generator is determined with field circuit and speed held constant. If the voltage regulation of a generator is 10%, it means that terminal voltage increases 10% as the load is changed from full load to no load

A. CHARACTERISTICS OF SERIES GENERATOR

Fig. (3.7) (i) shows the connections of a series wound generator. Since there is only one current (that which flows through the whole machine), the load currentis the same as the exciting current.

(i) O.C.C.

Curve 1 shows the open circuit characteristic (O.C.C.) of a series generator. It can be obtained experimentally by disconnecting the field winding from the machine and exciting it from a separate d.c. source as discussed in Sec. (3.2).

(ii) Internal characteristic

Curve 2 shows the total or internal characteristic of a series generator. It gives the relation between the generated e.m.f. E. on load and armature current. Due to armature reaction, the flux in the machine will be less than the flux at no load. Hence, e.m.f. E generated under load conditions will be less than the e.m.f. E_O generated under no load conditions. Consequently, internal characteristic curve generated under no load conditions. Consequently, internal characteristic curve lies below the O.C.C. curve; the difference between them representing the effect of armature reaction [See Fig. 3.7 (ii)].

(iii) External characteristic

Curve 3 shows the external characteristic of a series generator. It gives the relation between terminal voltage and load current I_L.

V= E-I_a(R_a+R_se)

Therefore, external characteristic curve will lie below internal characteristic
curve by an amount equal to ohmic drop[i.e., I_a(R_a+R_se)] in the machine as
shown in Fig. (3.7) (ii).

The internal and external characteristics of a d.c. series generator can be plotted from one another as shown in Fig. (3.8). Suppose we are given the internal characteristic of the generator. Let the line OC represent the resistance of the whole machine i.e. R_a+R_se.If the load current is OB, drop in the machine is AB i.e.
AB = Ohmic drop in the machine = OB(R_a+R_se)

Now raise a perpendicular from point B and mark a point b on this line such that ab = AB. Then point b will lie on the external characteristic of the generator. Following similar procedure, other points of external characteristic can be located. It is easy to see that we can also plot internal characteristic from the external characteristic.

B. CHARACTERISTICS OF SHUNT GENERATOR

Fig (3.9) (i) shows the connections of a shunt wound generator. The armature current I_a splits up into two parts; a small fraction I_sh flowing through shunt field winding while the major part I_L goes to the external load.

(i) O.C.C.

The O.C.C. of a shunt generator is similar in shape to that of a series generator as shown in Fig. (3.9) (ii). The line OA represents the shunt field circuit resistance. When the generator is run at normal speed, it will build up a voltage OM. At no-load, the terminal voltage of the generator will be constant (= OM) represented by the horizontal dotted line MC.

(ii) Internal characteristic

When the generator is loaded, flux per pole is reduced due to armature reaction. Therefore, e.m.f. E generated on load is less than the e.m.f. generated at no load.As a result, the internal characteristic (E/I_a) drops down slightly as shown in Fig.(3.9) (ii).

(iii) External characteristic

Curve 2 shows the external characteristic of a shunt generator. It gives the
relation between terminal voltage V and load current I_L.

V = E – IaRa = E -(I_L +I_sh)R_a

Therefore, external characteristic curve will lie below the internal characteristic curve by an amount equal to drop in the armature circuit [i.e., (I_L +I_sh)R_a ] as shown in Fig. (3.9) (ii).

Note. It may be seen from the external characteristic that change in terminal
voltage from no-load to full load is small. The terminal voltage can always be
maintained constant by adjusting the field rheostat R automatically

Critical External Resistance for Shunt Generator

If the load resistance across the terminals of a shunt generator is decreased, then load current increase? However, there is a limit to the increase in load current with the decrease of load resistance. Any decrease of load resistance beyond this point, instead of increasing the current, ultimately results in reduced current. Consequently, the external characteristic turns back (dotted curve) as shown in Fig. (3.10). The tangent OA to the curve represents the minimum external resistance required to excite the shunt generator on load and is called critical external resistance. If the resistance of the external circuit is less than the critical external resistance (represented by tangent OA in Fig. 3.10), the machine will refuse to excite or will de-excite if already running This means that external resistance is so low as virtually to short circuit the machine and so doing away with its excitation.

Note. There are two critical resistances for a shunt generator viz., (i) critical field resistance (ii) critical external resistance. For the shunt generator to build up voltage, the former should not be exceeded and the latter must not be gone below.

C. CONNECTING SHUNT GENERATORS IN PARALLEL

The generators in a power plant are connected in parallel through bus-bars. The bus-bars are heavy thick copper bars and they act as +ve and -ve terminals. The positive terminals of the generators are .connected to the +ve side of bus-bars and negative terminals to the negative side of bus-bars. Fig. (3.15) shows shunt generator 1 connected to the bus-bars and supplying
load. When the load on the power plant increases beyond the capacity of this generator, the second shunt generator 2 is connected in parallel wish the first to meet the increased load demand. The procedure for paralleling generator 2 with generator 1 is as under:

(i) The prime mover of generator 2 is brought up to the rated speed. Now switch S4 in the field circuit of the generator 2 is closed.

(ii) Next circuit breaker CB-2 is closed and the excitation of generator 2 is adjusted till it generates voltage equal to the bus-bars voltage. This is indicated by voltmeter V2.

(iii) Now the generator 2 is ready to be paralleled with generator 1. The main switch S3, is closed, thus putting generator 2 in parallel with generator 1. Note that generator 2 is not supplying any load because its generated e.m.f. is equal to bus-bars voltage. The generator is said to be “floating” (i.e., not supplying any load) on the bus-bars.

(iv) If generator 2 is to deliver any current, then its generated voltage E should be greater than the bus-bars voltage V. In that case, current supplied by it is I = (E – V)/Ra where Ra is the resistance of the armature circuit. By increasing the field current (and hence induced e.m.f. E), the generator 2 can be made to supply proper amount of load.

(v) The load may be shifted from one shunt generator to another merely by adjusting the field excitation. Thus if generator 1 is to be shut down, the whole load can be shifted onto generator 2 provided it has the capacity to supply that load. In that case, reduce the current supplied by generator 1 to zero (This will be indicated by ammeter A1) open C.B.-1 and then open the main switch S1.

Load Sharing

The load sharing between shunt generators in parallel can be easily regulated because of their drooping characteristics. The load may be shifted from one generator to another merely by adjusting the field excitation. Let us discuss the load sharing of two generators which have unequal no-load voltages.
Let E1, E2 = no-load voltages of the two generators
R1, R2 = their armature resistances
V = common terminal voltage (Bus-bars voltage)

I₁ = (E₁-V)/R₁ and I₂ = (E₂ – V)/R₂

Thus current output of the generators depends upon the values of E1 and E3. These values may be changed by field rheostats. The common terminal voltage (or bus-bars voltage) will depend upon (i) the e.m.f.s of individual generators and (ii) the total load current supplied. It is generally desired to keep the busbars voltage constant. This can be achieved by adjusting the field excitations of the generators operating in parallel.